503 pages. Between 1971 and 1978 pertinent government records were declassified and the book has a firm foundation in British archival records, as well as a wealth of information gained by interviews and correspondence with policy-makers, military officers who conducted repatriation operations, and a few of the victims who managed to survive the ordeal. The perplexed British officer was told by members of the Polish Armored Division that of course the Russian peasants were better off in Germany why couldnt we let well enough alone.. In Berezivka, groups were forced to walk to Domanevka, Bogdanovka, Golta and other concentration camps. 1945/12/20. [32] In 1945, Lord Aldington had served as chief of staff of V Corps that carried out the repatriation. The complex was completed in 2004 with the erection of a monument to the victims of the Holocaust in Odessa by sculptor Zurab Tsereteli.[18][19]. One British officer told the Cossacks, "I assure you, on my word of honour as a British officer, that you are just going to a conference". 1945/10/30. Series 6 of the ITV programme Foyle's War was first aired in 2010, beginning Sunday 11 April; comprising three episodes, it is set in the period from June to August 1945. Despite stiff protests, the military was unable to prevail upon the Foreign Office to reverse its unilateral decision to return all Russians to Soviet authorities. The names on this list have been submitted by relatives, friends, neighbours and others who wish to remember them, if you have any names to add or any recollections or photos of those listed, please Add a Name to this List Records of SS Almanzora from other sources. [9], Another Cossack group whose fate became tied with the Germans consisted of approximately 25,000 Cossack refugees and irregulars who evacuated the North Caucasus alongside the Wehrmacht in 1943. On 28 May 1945 the British Army arrived at Camp Peggetz, in Lienz, where there were 2,479 Cossacks, including 2,201 officers and soldiers. Among the thousands delivered to Stalin was 76-year-old Czarist General Peter Krasnov; Andrei Shkuro, a cavalry leader who had fought for the Czar and had been decorated by the British in the First World War and who fought with the German 1st Cossack Cavalry Division in the Second World War: and Sultan Kelech Ghirey, leader of the Caucasians. [43] Thorpe wrote that strictly speaking the term "White Russian" described any Russian who fought on the White side in the Russian Civil War or those anti-Communist Russians who went into exile, but in British official circles in World War Two and in the British Army the term "White Russian" was used indiscriminately to describe any anti-Communist person from the territory of the modern Soviet Union, regardless if they were Russian or not. Meanwhile, the Jews who were not selected for the first group, and who had already arrived in Dalnik, were told that they were "forgiven". The guards, consisting of Romanian soldiers and German colonists, organized mass executions of Jews during the journeys. Many Cossack leaders had never been citizens of the Soviet Union, having fled revolutionary Russia in 1920;[16] hence they believed they could not be guilty of treason. [53] Morris argued that Churchill had a well founded belief that if the British granted asylum to the Cossacks, then the Soviets would not return the British POWs. In Italy, Field Marshal Alexander finally told a Soviet Repatriation Mission under General Basilov that he would not be allowed to bully unwilling Ukrainians into returning to Russia. There were two reasons for this. The result was one of the worlds worst maritime disasters, leaving the prisoners and the ships crew struggling for survival in the icy Baltic waters. In early 1943, most of the Cossack units fighting with the German Army were consolidated into the First Cossack Cavalry Division under the command of General Helmuth von Pannwitz. British officers informed these men that they were requested to attend a meeting with Field Marshal Alexander. For example, at the close of the war, around 50,000 Cossacks were in British-controlled parts of Austria. Of those Cossacks who escaped repatriation, many hid in forests and mountainsides, some were hidden by the local German populace, but most hid in different identities as Latvians, Poles, Yugoslavians, Turks, Armenians and even Ethiopians. (2018). Ile de France (S.S.) Southampton. Jews participated in the struggle of the Odessa underground and constituted a significant part of the guerrilla units, based in the Odessa catacombs.[3]. They were transported in unheated echelons, and many died on the road. 503 pages.Hardcover. The purpose of the clandestine organisation was to facilitate the escape of Nazi war criminals and their assets through ratlines to South America and the Middle East. The Plots can only be approximate. "[39] In May 1983, Tolstoy published an article "The Klagenfurt Conspiracy" in Encounter magazine alleging a conspiracy by Harold Macmillan, the British "resident minister" for the Mediterranean, Field Marshal Harold Alexander and other British officials to hand over the Cossacks. Those guilty of violating this order will be punished with the death penalty, By the middle of December, about 55,000 Jews were gathered in Bogdanovka, though some of them were not from Odessa. There will therefore be occasions when the ship appears to have travelled . When they were released, they discovered that their houses had been occupied and their property plundered. A year later Nicholas Bethells The Last Secret: Forcible Repatriation to Russia 19447 (Basic Books, 1974) was published in Britain and the United States. Almanzora (SS) Southampton. Some of them hoping to find new opportunities to work and progress. Julius Epstein described the scene that occurred: The first to commit suicide, by hanging, was the Cossack editor Evgenij Tarruski. Sir Henry Morris-Jones , Denbigh 12:00 am, 6th March 1945. asked the Secretary of State for War whether he has any further information in regard to our prisoners of war in German territory occupied by our Russian Ally. The British then hit them with rifle butts until they lay unconscious, and threw them, like sacks of potatoes, in the trucks. It was all the more misguided because the Soviet side at first did not lay any claim to them. [47], Between 2 October-30 November 1989, the much publicised libel trial of Tolstoy vs. Aldington took place and ended with the jury ruling in the favour of the latter and awarding him 1.5 million. Hardcover. By late June the British Foreign Office decided to repatriate all Russian POWs, callously disregarding the consequences of such a policy (early in the war Stalin had made it clear that any Soviet citizens who were even temporarily out of Communist control would be regarded as traitors. It said:[6]:171, All persons of Jewish origin are obliged at the registration to the Military Command or police officials to voluntarily declare all their precious objects, stones and metals. There will therefore be occasions when the ship appears to have travelled . As Tolstoy relates: Even the Soviet authorities who received them were astonished that the British should have included these people in the consignment. The forced repatriation of Russians at the end of World War II has been dealt with in several books that appeared before Count Tolstoys book was published in Britain in 1977 under the title of Victims of Yalta. In response to the appeal filed by the Prosecutor General, on May 6, 2008, the case was re-examined and the judges of the High Court of Cassation and Justice finally rejected the application for revision of the 1946 sentence. [46] Cowgill believed that the honour of the British Army had been smeared, but Booker was a supporter of Tolstoy when he joined the committee in 1986. [17], In the early 1990s in Odessa's Prokhorovsky Square, where the "road of death" to the extermination camps for Odessa's Jews and Gypsies had begun on the outskirts of the city in 1941, a memorial commemorating the victims of the Holocaust was created. The explosions in Odessa that destroyed the newly occupied buildings, killing both Rumanian and German military staffs, had two outcomes for the Jews of Odessa. The columns of the captured hostages were driven to the area of artillery warehouses on Lustdorf Road, where they were shot or burned alive. John Galsworthy of the Foreign Office minuted: We do not wish to attract attention to this aspect of the Agreement which is, of course, in opposition to our traditional attitude towards political refugees , Other objections were raised by Allied occupation commanders. Stalin obtained Allied agreement to the repatriation of every so-called "Soviet" citizen held prisoner because the Allied leaders feared that the Soviets either might delay or refuse repatriation of the Allied POWs whom the Red Army had liberated from Nazi POW camps. Here the two hundred immediately started to fight. The repatriations were agreed to in the Yalta Conference; Joseph Stalin claimed the prisoners were Soviet citizens as of 1939, although many of them had left Russia before or soon after the end of the Russian Civil War or had been born abroad, hence never holding Soviet citizenship. [32] In response, Aldington sued Watts for libel, and Tolstoy insisted on being included as a defendant, seeing a chance to promote his cause. This ship was a tanker, and we went to America to bring back high-octane petrol, for use in our aircraft. They boarded trucks and were then turned over to Soviet authorities in Austria. [49], After four years of investigation, in October 1990 the Cowgill committee published its report, The Repatriations from Austria in 1945 whose conclusions largely echoed those reached by Knight in 1986 that British policy in Austria was largely governed by preparations for a possible war with Yugoslavia and perhaps the Soviet Union as well. [40] The architectural historian and interior designer James Lees-Milne wrote in his diary: "It was wicked to hang Ribbentrop, who was never a criminal. Thorpe in his 2010 biography Supermac came close to accusing Tolstoy of scholarly misconduct, stating that the "White Russians" that Macmillan mentioned in his diary in 1945 were not the Cossacks as Tolstoy claimed, but rather the Russian Protective Corps, a collaborationist unit that fought for Nazi Germany whose men were either Russian emigres living in Yugoslavia or the sons of these emigres. Ultimately, the fate of the Cap Arcona and its passengers was a tragic consequence of the fog of war. For these crimes, they were sentenced to death. Tel: +44 (0)20 8312 6516 (during Library opening hours). For many people on the British right, Macmillan is viewed as something alike to a traitor because of the 1961 application to join the EEC. [32] Tolstoy retained a loyal set of defenders consisting of the Conservative MP Bernard Braine, the philosopher Roger Scruton, the journalist Chapman Pincher, the writer Nigel Nicolson, Lord Cranborne and from farther afield Solzhenitsyn, who was living in exile in the United States at the time. [32] The way in which the Ministry of Defence supplied Aldington with certain documents that were denied to Tolstoy has been an especially controversial aspect of the trial, and Tolstoy continues to maintain that he was a victim of "the Establishment". Later that year, another ship, the Almanzora set sail for Southampton. From 1943 until early 1947 Western countries, led by Britain and the United States, returned nearly two and a half million prisoners of war and refugees to the Soviet Union, regardless of their individual wishes. The first book written in English on the subject was The East Came West (1964) by the British author Peter Huxley-Blythe, but attracted little attention because of Huxley-Blythe's involvement with the European Liberation Front. [32] In 1945, Toby Low (as Aldington then was known) was planning after leaving the Army to enter politics by running as a Conservative candidate for the House of Commons; Tolstoy has suggested several times that Aldington wanted the patronage of Macmillan, a rising star in the Conservative Party, and would do anything that might please Macmillan such as repatriating the Cossacks in accordance with his wishes. However, nothing in the agreement on POWs referred to the return of Soviet citizens who were unwilling to go back to the USSR. The fate of the Russians whose return they enforced was an unfortunate but unavoidable sacrifice to the greater aim.. British wartime propaganda had portrayed the USSR as being a kind of utopian socialist state and that they would behave compassionately towards these people whom we were deputed to send back. Throughout the war there had been a blackout of news unfavorable to the Soviet system, thus it was hardly surprising that the military men detailed to enforce repatriation felt that the USSR was governed by the "Four Freedoms," and that Russian refugees consequently had little to fear from their own government. Daniel Long does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment. For many years this unique piece of film was not available for public inspection. Many of the gravestones mark mass graves holding unknown numbers. [25][26] Epstein states that the prisoners put up considerable resistance: First, they refused to leave their barracks when ordered to do so. In consultation with Tolstoy, Watts wrote and published a pamphlet accusing Aldington of war crimes for his involvement in repatriating the Cossacks. [28], Thousands of Russians, many of them Cossacks, were transported at the height of armed hostilities in 1944 to Murmansk in an operation that also led to the sinking of the German battleship Tirpitz.[29]. Eventually they were admitted to displaced persons camps under assumed names and nationalities; many emigrated to the US per the Displaced Persons Act. In the immediate aftermath of the war, Britains focus was on attempting to prosecute Nazi war criminals, and investigations into British misadventures were sidelined. Queen Elizabeth I. Southampton. 'Almanzora' was launched in 1914 and commissioned in the following year, like her sister ship Andes (SLR1410), as an armed merchant cruiser, attached to the Tenth Cruiser Squadron. Leave your condolences to the family on this memorial page or send flowers to show you care. The Gulag Archipelago. The United States joined with Britain and the Soviet Union in reaffirming the program of repatriating Russians at the Yalta Conference. Again, they jumped out. 1945/10/31. Est-il possible que des documents de bord de ces navires (dates de voyages, escales, listes de passagers, etc.) More than 70 years on from the tragic sinking, crucial questions remain regarding the role of British forces in the final days of the Second World War. [53] As it was, the British POWs in Soviet hands were returned to the United Kingdom "humanely and expeditiously". For further information, please contact Archive staff: Email: library@rmg.co.uk The repressions ceased and some privileges were restored after publication of And Quiet Flows the Don (1934) by Mikhail Sholokhov. [34] Solzhenitsyn describes the forced repatriation of the Cossacks by Winston Churchill as follows: "He turned over to the Soviet command the Cossack corps of 90,000 men. The S. S. Almanzora (HMT) [His Majesty's Transport] is a dirty old troop-ship from the first war, painted grey it has one funnel & is not very big. The mine had been planted there by the sappers of the Red Army before the surrender of the city by Soviet troops. Column of Jewish civilians deported to Transnistria escorted by Romanian soldiers, Mass killings of hostages and Jews on October 2224, Destruction of the Romanian commandant's office, Trials and punishment of the main perpetrators, Last edited on 11 February 2023, at 02:25, I Do Not Care If We Go Down in History as Barbarians, The Forgotten Holocaust: The Massacre of Odesas Jews, "The Odessa massacre: Remembering the 'Holocaust by bullets', "Bogdanov tragedy - Holocaust against the Jewish population", "Association of Jewish Organizations and Communities of Ukraine (Vaad of Ukraine)", "Terra Sebus. [2][3] Motivations varied, but the primary reasons were the brutal repression of Cossacks by the Soviet government, e.g., the portioning of the lands of the Terek, Ural and Semirechye hosts, forced cultural assimilation and repression of the Russian Orthodox Church, deportation and, ultimately, the Soviet famine of 193233. Almanzora.info Creation Date: 2019-01-29 | 242 days left. Some specific political crimes were omitted from amnesty: people convicted under Section 58.1(c) of the Criminal Code, stipulating that in the event of a military man escaping Russia, every adult member of his family who abetted the escape or who knew of it would be subject to five to ten years' imprisonment; every dependent who did not know of the escape would be subject to five years' Siberian exile.[30]. Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov asserted in May 1944 that the number of Russians serving in the German armed forces was insignificant. Actually, approximately one million of Stalins subjects had joined the other side. In this way, the author explains, the British Government had in essence sentenced to death without trial German officers who had been received by them as prisoners of war., Brigadier Geoffrey Musson, who delivered these Cossacks to the Soviets, told the author that he received oral orders from his superiors compelling him to return all the Cossacks under his control, regardless of their actual nationality. Art. Official Orders threatened deserters and POWs with draconian measures). Loving father of Thomas Jr. (Danielle) and Stacey Zaba (Mark). Durant l't 1945 plusieurs navires anglais ont transfr des prisonniers de guerre de Odessa Marseille. At Judenberg (the delivery point in Austria) the Red Army General Dolmatov asked in surprise why the old migrs had been handed over: to his knowledge the Soviet authorities had never demanded them. The problem had to be moved elsewhere. Others escaping the European wars. After an uneventful peacetime career, she was on her last voyage from South America in 1939 when war broke out. [10], The agreements of the Yalta and Tehran Conferences, signed by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, determined the fates of the Cossacks who did not fight for the Soviets, because many were POWs of the Nazis. William Dritschilo described the events at Lienz in Lienz Cossacks, his novelization of the Cossack experience of the 20th century. It is located in the northeast of the province between the areas of Los Vlez and the Sierra de los Fibrales. But the warning arrived too late. Leave your condolences to the family on this memorial page or send flowers to show you care. 1945/11/19. [17], On 1 June 1945 the UK placed 32,000 Cossacks (with their women and children) into trains and trucks and delivered them to the Red Army for repatriation to the Soviets;[18] similar repatriations occurred that year in the US occupation zones in Austria and Germany. The SS Ormonde was an ex-troop ship that arrived in Britain with a significant numbers of Caribbean migrants. As they were being rounded up, many displayed documents proving that they were citizens of France, Italy, Yugoslavia, or registered stateless with Nanssen passports issued by the League of Nations. To achieve this, Lbeck on the Baltic coast was considered the strategic goal. Features of the Holocaust in Odessa, Official site of the Museum of the Holocaust in Odessa, Book-trailer literary and documentary novel, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1941_Odessa_massacre&oldid=1138695478, This page was last edited on 11 February 2023, at 02:25. [1] For faster navigation, this Iframe is preloading the Wikiwand page for Foyle's War (series 6) . The American and British governments thus assumed the onus for continuing the repatriation policy. In August, Odessa became a target of the Romanian 4th Army . Most Cossacks hid their true national identity until the dissolution of the USSR in late 1991. "[53], In 1997, Booker published his book A Looking Glass Tragedy, in which he wrote: "there was almost no part of the story which we found to be free from serious error, even to the point where atrocities and massacres described at length were found not to have taken place at all. [47] About Tolstoy's allegations that Macmillan was a major war criminal, the Cowgill committee concluded that Macmillan's role in the repatriations was very small and largely dictated by military considerations. During the first week of Romanian occupation of Odessa, the city lost about 10% of its inhabitants. On October 22, 1941, a bomb exploded in Romanian military headquarters in Odessa. The agreed upon definition of a Soviet citizen was a person born or resident within the pre-September 1, 1939, boundaries of Russia (who had not acquired another nationality or a Nanssen passport, which would render the subject Stateless) By this definition thousands who had fled Russia during the Civil War and who found themselves under British control at the end of the Second World War should not have been sent to the USSR. [7], Across the Marazlievskaya street, occupiers broke into the apartments of Odessa citizens and shot or hanged all residents found, without exception. [50] Cowgill sued Harris and the Times for libel and the case was settled out of court with the Times agreeing to donate to a charity of Cowgill's choice, in this case the Army Benevolent Fund. As a result, the majority of Cossack soldiers were mobilized against the Red Army. [40] As Macmillan went on to serve as prime minister between 1957 and 1963, Tolstoy's allegations attracted tremendous attention in Britain while also causing immense controversy. Dowsett Leonard. As they made their final descent, the airmen likely believed they were attacking bona fide hostile targets. Responding to a plea that mercy be shown to those who did not wish to return to the Soviet Union, Eden wrote that the provisions of the Crimean [Yalta] Agreement had to be upheld, for we cannot afford to be sentimental.. Upon discovering that they would be repatriated, many escaped, some probably aided by their Allied captors;[11] some passively resisted, and others killed themselves. Additional thousands of old migrs (people who had fled Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution and the Civil War) were also forcibly sent to the USSR, along with other people of Russian descent who had never lived within the borders of Russia. [43] The novelist Robert Graves publicly stated: "Harold Macmillan, he's a murderer you know". We were. As the Soviets emerged victorious in the civil war, many Cossack veterans, fearing reprisals and the Bolsheviks de-Cossackization policies, fled abroad to countries in Central and Western Europe. [37] The 1970s were a period when dtente had become fashionable in some quarters and many on the right believed the West was losing the Cold War. Odessa brings to the attention of the population of Odessa and its surroundings that after the terrorist act committed against the Military Command on October 22, on the day of October 23, 1941, were shot: for every German or Romanian officer and civilian official 200 Bolsheviks, and for every German or Romanian soldier 100 Bolsheviks. On June 24, 1944, Patrick Dean, the Assistant Legal Adviser of the Foreign Office, declared: In due course all those with whom the Soviet authorities desire to deal must be handed over to them, and we are not concerned with the fact that they may be shot or otherwise more harshly dealt with than they might be under English law.. [56] Thorpe further argued that Tolstoy seemed unaware of the way the British used the term "White Russian" in World War Two and as he uses the term "White Russian" in the more limited sense, he assumes that the British were consciously repatriating people whom they knew were not Soviet citizens.[57]. [54], The British historian Edwyn Morris in his 2008 essay "The Repatriation of the Cossacks from Austria in 1945" argued that for Churchill a major concern in 1945 was securing the return of all the British POWs in German POW camps who had fallen into Soviet hands as the Red Army advanced into Germany in 1944-45 and British policies on repatriation on people to the Soviet Union was dictated by the fear that Stalin might hold the British POWs as hostages. On July 5, 1945, the Vatican sent a plea to the British Foreign Office and the U.S. State Department that thousands of Ukrainians in the West should not be sent back. [45] Knight maintained that the British wanted to clear Austria of all the vast number of prisoners they had taken to free up soldiers now struck guarding the prisoners for a possible war with Yugoslavia and to improve relations by returning peoples who were the enemies of the Yugoslav and Soviet governments. Sonderkommando 11b carried out a much smaller execution of about 200 Jews and others, brought from a prison in the city to the SK 11b headquarters at a NKWD sanatorium on the northern . [34] The subject of the repatriations in 1945 were used by a variety of right-wing authors in the 1970s-1980s as a symbol of both of the malevolence of the Soviet Union and of a "craven" policy towards the Soviet Union alleged to have been pursued by the successive American and British governments since the Second World War. The Lienz Cossack repatriation was exceptional, because the Cossacks forcefully resisted their repatriation to the USSR; one Cossack noted, "The NKVD or the Gestapo would have slain us with truncheons, the British did it with their word of honour. A month later, a death march of 10,000 Jews was organized in three concentration camps in Golta. 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